There are three widely used programming paradigms there. Procedural
programming, functional programming and object-oriented programming.
Visual Basic supports both procedural and object-oriented programming.
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that uses objects
and their interactions to design applications and computer programs. (Wikipedia)
There are some basic programming concepts in OOP:
- Abstraction
- Polymorphism
- Encapsulation
- Inheritance
The abstraction is simplifying complex reality by modeling classes appropriate to the problem.
The polymorphism is the process of using an operator or function in different ways for different data input.
The encapsulation hides the implementation details of a class from other objects.
The inheritance is a way to form new classes using classes that have already been defined.
Objects
Objects are basic building blocks of a Visual Basic OOP program. An object is a combination of data and methods.
In a OOP program, we create objects. These objects communicate together through methods. Each object
can receive messages, send messages and process data.
There are two steps in creating an object. First, we create a class. A class is a template for an object.
It is a blueprint, which describes the state and behavior that the objects of the class all share. A class
can be used to create many objects. Objects created at runtime from a class are called instances of that
particular class.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Being
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim b as New Being
Console.WriteLine(b.ToString())
End Sub
End Module
In our first example, we create a simple object.
Class Being
End Class
This is a simple class definition. The body of the template is empty. It does not
have any data or methods.
Dim b as New Being
We create a new instance of the Being class. For this we have the New
keyword. The b variable is the handle to the created object.
Console.WriteLine(b.ToString())
The ToString() method of the object
gives some basic description of the object.
$ ./object.exe
Example+Being
We don't get much info, since the class definition was empty.
We get the object class name and the module name, where the
instance of this object was created.
Object attributes
Object attributes is the data bundled in an instance of a class. The
object attributes are called instance variables or member fields.
An instance variable is a variable defined in a class, for which each object
in the class has a separate copy.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Person
Public Name As String
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim p1 as New Person
p1.Name = "Jane"
Dim p2 as New Person
p2.Name = "Beky"
Console.WriteLine(p1.Name)
Console.WriteLine(p2.Name)
End Sub
End Module
In the above Visual Basic code, we have a Person class with
one member field.
Class Person
Public Name As String
End Class
We declare a Name member field. The Public
keyword specifies, that the member field will be accessible
outside the Class/End Class block.
Dim p1 as New Person
p1.Name = "Jane"
We create an instance of the Person class. And set the
Name variable to "Jane". We use the dot operator to
access the attributes of objects.
Dim p2 as New Person
p2.Name = "Beky"
We create another instance of the Person class. Here
we set the variable to "Beky".
Console.WriteLine(p1.Name)
Console.WriteLine(p2.Name)
We print the contents of the variables to the console.
$ ./person.exe
Jane
Beky
We see the output of the program. Each instance of the Person class has a separate
copy of the Name member field.
Methods
Methods are functions/procedures defined inside the body of a class. They are used to perform operations
with the attributes of our objects. Methods are essential in encapsulation concept of
the OOP paradigm. For example, we might have a Connect method in our AccessDatabase class.
We need not to be informed, how exactly the method Connect connects to the database.
We only know, that it is used to connect to a database. This is essential in dividing
responsibilities in programming. Especially in large applications.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Circle
Public Radius As Integer
Public Sub SetRadius(ByVal Radius As Integer)
Me.Radius = Radius
End Sub
Public Function Area() As Double
Return Me.Radius * Me.Radius * Math.PI
End Function
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim c As New Circle
c.SetRadius(5)
Console.WriteLine(c.Area())
End Sub
End Module
In the code example, we have a Circle class. We define two methods.
Public Radius As Integer
We have one member field. It is the Radius of the circle. The Public
keyword is an access specifier. It tells that the variable is fully accessible from the outside
world.
Public Sub SetRadius(ByVal Radius As Integer)
Me.Radius = Radius
End Sub
This is the SetRadius() method. It is a normal Visual Basic procedure.
The Me variable is a special variable, which
we use to access the member fields from methods.
Public Function Area() As Double
Return Me.Radius * Me.Radius * Math.PI
End Function
The Area() method returns the area of a circle. The Math.PI is
a built-in constant.
$ ./circle.exe
78.5398163397448
Running the example.
Access modifiers
Access modifiers set the visibility of methods and member fields. Visual Basic has five access modifiers.
Public, Protected, Private, Friend
and ProtectedFriend.
Public members can be accessed from anywhere. Protected
members can be accessed only within the class itself and by inherited and parent classes.
Friend members may be accessed from within the same assembly (exe or dll).
ProtectedFriend is a union of protected and friend modifiers.
Access modifiers protect data against accidental modifications. They make the programs more robust.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Person
Public Name As String
Private Age As Byte
Public Function GetAge() As Byte
Return Me.Age
End Function
Public Sub SetAge(ByVal Age As Byte)
Me.Age = Age
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim p as New Person
p.Name = "Jane"
p.setAge(17)
Console.WriteLine("{0} is {1} years old", _
p.Name, p.GetAge)
End Sub
End Module
In the above program, we have two member fields. One is declared Public,
the other Private.
Public Function GetAge() As Byte
Return Me.Age
End Function
If a member field is Private, the only way to access it is via
methods. If we want to modify an attribute outside the class, the
method must be declared Public. This is an important aspect of
data protection.
Public Sub SetAge(ByVal Age As Byte)
Me.Age = Age
End Sub
The SetAge() method enables us to change the Private Age variable
from outside of the class definition.
Dim p as New Person
p.Name = "Jane"
We create a new instance of the Person class.
Because the Name attribute is Public, we can access it
directly. However, this is not recommended.
p.setAge(17)
The SetAge() method modifies the Age member field. It cannot be accessed
or modified directly, because it is declared Private.
Console.WriteLine("{0} is {1} years old", _
p.Name, p.GetAge)
Finally, we access both members to build a string.
$ ./modifiers.exe
Jane is 17 years old
Running the example.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Base
Public Name As String = "Base"
Protected Id As Integer = 5323
Private IsDefined As Boolean = True
End Class
Class Derived
Inherits Base
Public Sub Info()
Console.WriteLine("This is Derived Class")
Console.WriteLine("Members inherited:")
Console.WriteLine(Me.Name)
Console.WriteLine(Me.Id)
'Console.WriteLine(Me.IsDefined)
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim drv As Derived = New Derived
drv.Info()
End Sub
End Module
In the preceding program, we have a Derived class, which inherits from the Base class. The
Base class has three member fields. All with different access modifiers.
The IsDefined member is not inherited. The Private
modifier prevents this.
Class Derived
Inherits Base
The class Derived inherits from the Base class.
Console.WriteLine(Me.Name)
Console.WriteLine(Me.Id)
'Console.WriteLine(Me.IsDefined)
The Public and the Protected members are inherited by the Derived class.
They can be accessed. The Private member is not inherited. The line
accessing the member field is commented. If we uncommented the line,
it would not compile.
$ ./protected.exe
This is Derived Class
Members inherited:
Base
5323
Running the program, we receive this output. The Public and Protected members are inherited, the
Private member is not.
Method overloading
Method overloading allows the creation of several methods with the same name
which differ from each other in the type of the input.
What is method overloading good for? The Qt4 library gives a nice example for the usage.
The QPainter class has three methods to draw a rectangle. Their name is drawRect() and their
parameters differ. One takes a reference to a floating point rectangle object, another takes
a reference to an integer rectangle object and the last one takes four parameters, x, y, width, height.
If the C++ language, which is the language in which Qt is developed, didn't have method overloading, the
creators of the library would have to name the methods like drawRectRectF(), drawRectRect(), drawRectXYWH().
The solution with method overloading is more elegant.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Sum
Public Function GetSum() As Integer
Return 0
End Function
Public Function GetSum(ByVal x As Integer) As Integer
Return x
End Function
Public Function GetSum(ByVal x As Integer, _
ByVal y As Integer) As Integer
Return x + y
End Function
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim s As Sum = New Sum
Console.WriteLine(s.getSum())
Console.WriteLine(s.getSum(20))
Console.WriteLine(s.getSum(20, 30))
End Sub
End Module
We have three methods called GetSum(). They differ in input parameters.
Public Function GetSum(ByVal x As Integer) As Integer
Return x
End Function
This one takes one parameter.
Console.WriteLine(s.getSum())
Console.WriteLine(s.getSum(20))
Console.WriteLine(s.getSum(20, 30))
We call all three methods.
$ ./overloading.exe
0
20
50
And this is what we get, when we run the
example.
The constructor
A constructor is a special kind of a method. It is automatically called, when the object is created.
The purpose of the constructor is to initiate the state of the object.
The name of the constructor in Visual Basic is New. The constructors
are methods, so they can be overloaded too.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Being
Sub New()
Console.WriteLine("Being is being created")
End Sub
Sub New(ByVal name As String)
Console.WriteLine("Being {0} is created", name)
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim b As New Being
Dim t As New Being("Tom")
End Sub
End Module
We have a Being class. This class has two constructors.
The first one does not take parameters, the second one
takes one parameter.
Sub New(ByVal name As String)
Console.WriteLine("Being {0} is created", name)
End Sub
This constructor takes one String parameter.
Dim b As New Being
An instance of the Being class is created. This
time the constructor without a parameter is called upon
object creation.
$ ./constructor.exe
Being is being created
Being Tom is created
This is the output of the program.
In the next example, we initiate data members of the class.
Initiation of variables is a typical job for constructors.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class MyFriend
Private Born As Date
Private Name As String
Sub New(ByVal Name As String, ByVal Born As Date)
Me.Name = Name
Me.Born = Born
End Sub
Public Sub GetInfo()
Console.WriteLine("{0} was born on {1}", _
Me.Name, Me.Born.ToShortDateString)
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim name As String = "Lenka"
Dim born As Date = #5/3/1990#
Dim fr As MyFriend = New MyFriend(name, born)
fr.GetInfo()
End Sub
End Module
We have a Friend class with data members and methods.
Private Born As Date
Private Name As String
We have two variables in the class definition. The Private keyword is
an access modifier. It is a form of encapsulation. The Private keyword
is the most restrictive modifier. It allows only the object in question to access the variable.
No descendants, no other objects.
Sub New(ByVal Name As String, ByVal Born As Date)
Me.Name = Name
Me.Born = Born
End Sub
In the constructor, we initiate the two data members. The Me variable
is a handler used to reference the object variables.
Dim fr As MyFriend = New MyFriend(name, born)
fr.GetInfo()
We create a Friend object with two arguments. Then we call the GetInfo() method
of the object.
./constructor2.exe
Lenka was born on 5/3/1990
Class constants
Visual Basic enables to create class constants. These constants do not belong
to a concrete object. They belong to the class. By convention, constants are
written in uppercase letters.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Math
Public Const PI As Double = 3.14159265359
End Class
Sub Main()
Console.WriteLine(Math.PI)
End Sub
End Module
We have a Math class with a PI constant.
Public Const PI As Double = 3.14159265359
The Const keyword is used to define a constant.
$ ./classconstant.exe
3.14159265359
Running the example.
The ToString() method
Each object has a ToString() method. It returns a human-readable
representation of the object. The default implementation returns the fully qualified name
of the type of the Object.
Note that when we call the Console.WriteLine() method with
an object as a parameter, the ToString() is being called.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Being
Public Overrides Function ToString As String
Return "This is Being Class"
End Function
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim b as New Being
Dim o As New Object
Console.WriteLine(o.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(b)
End Sub
End Module
We have a Being class in which we override the default implementation
of the ToString() method.
Public Overrides Function ToString As String
Return "This is Being Class"
End Function
Each class created inherits from the base Object.
The ToString() method belongs to this Object class.
We use the Overrides keyword to inform, that
we are overriding a method.
Dim b as New Being
Dim o As New Object
We create two objects. One custom defined and one built-in.
Console.WriteLine(o.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(b.ToString())
We call the ToString() method on these two objects.
Console.WriteLine(b)
As we have specified earlier, calling the Console.WriteLine()
on the object will call its ToString() method.
$ ./override.exe
System.Object
This is Being Class
This is Being Class
This is what we get, when we run the script.
Inheritance
The inheritance is a way to form new classes using classes that have already been defined.
The newly formed classes are called derived classes, the classes that we derive from
are called base classes. Important benefits of inheritance are code reuse and reduction
of complexity of a program. The derived classes (descendants) override or extend the
functionality of base classes (ancestors).
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Being
Sub New()
Console.WriteLine("Being is created")
End Sub
End Class
Class Human
Inherits Being
Sub New()
Console.WriteLine("Human is created")
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim h As New Human
End Sub
End Module
In this program, we have two classes. A base Being class and a derived Human class.
The derived class inherits from the base class.
Class Human
Inherits Being
In Visual Basic, we use the Inherits keyword to create
inheritance relations.
Dim h As New Human
We instantiate the derived Human class.
$ ./inheritance.exe
Being is created
Human is created
We can see, that both constructors were called. First, the constructor of the
base class is called, then the constructor of the derived class.
A more complex example follows.
Option Strict On
Module Example
Class Being
Dim Shared Count As Integer = 0
Sub New()
Count = Count + 1
Console.WriteLine("Being is created")
End Sub
Sub GetCount()
Console.WriteLine("There are {0} Beings", Count)
End Sub
End Class
Class Human
Inherits Being
Sub New()
Console.WriteLine("Human is created")
End Sub
End Class
Class Animal
Inherits Being
Sub New
Console.WriteLine("Animal is created")
End Sub
End Class
Class Dog
Inherits Animal
Sub New()
Console.WriteLine("Dog is created")
End Sub
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim h As New Human
Dim d As New Dog
d.GetCount()
End Sub
End Module
We have four classes. The inheritance hierarchy is more complicated. The
Human and the Animal classes inherit from the Being class. And the Dog class inherits directly
from the Animal class and indirectly from the Being class. We also introduce a
concept of a Shared variable.
Dim Shared Count As Integer = 0
We define a Shared variable. Shared members
are members, that are shared by all instances of a class. In other
programming languages, they are called static members.
Sub New()
Count = Count + 1
Console.WriteLine("Being is created")
End Sub
Each time the Being class is instantiated, we increase the Count
variable by one. This way we keep track of the number of instances created.
Class Animal
Inherits Being
...
Class Dog
Inherits Animal
...
The Animal inherits from the Being and the Dog inherits from the Animal. Indirectly,
the Dog inherits from the Being as well.
Dim h As New Human
Dim d As New Dog
d.GetCount
We create instances from the Human and from the Dog classes.
We call the GetCount() method of the Dog object.
$ ./inheritance2.exe
Being is created
Human is created
Being is created
Animal is created
Dog is created
There are 2 Beings
The Human object calls two constructors. The Dog object calls
three constructors. There are two Beings instantiated.
Abstract classes and methods
Abstract classes cannot be instantiated. If a class contains at least one abstract method,
it must be declared abstract too. Abstract methods cannot be implemented,
they merely declare the methods' signatures. When we inherit from an abstract class, all abstract methods
must be implemented by the derived class. Furthermore, these methods must be declared with the same
of less restricted visibility.
Unlike Interfaces, abstract classes may have methods with full implementation and may also have
defined member fields. So abstract classes may provide a partial implementation. Programmers often put
some common functionality into abstract classes. And these abstract classes are later subclassed to
provide more specific implementation. For example, the Qt graphics library has a QAbstractButton, which
is the abstract base class of button widgets, providing functionality common to buttons. Buttons
Q3Button, QCheckBox, QPushButton, QRadioButton, and QToolButton inherit from this base abstract class.
Formally put, abstract classes are used to enforce a protocol. A protocol is a set of operations,
which all implementing objects must support.
Option Strict On
Module Example
MustInherit Class Drawing
Protected x As Integer = 0
Protected y As Integer = 0
Public MustOverride Function Area() As Double
Public Function GetCoordinates() As String
Return String.Format("x: {0}, y: {1}", _
Me.x, Me.y)
End Function
End Class
Class Circle
Inherits Drawing
Private Radius As Integer
Sub New(ByVal x As Integer, ByVal y As Integer, _
ByVal r As Integer)
Me.x = x
Me.y = y
Me.Radius = r
End Sub
Public Overrides Function Area() As Double
Return Me.Radius * Me.Radius * Math.PI
End Function
Public Overrides Function ToString() As String
Return String.Format("Circle, at x: {0}, y: {1}, radius: {2}", _
Me.x, Me.y, Me.Radius)
End Function
End Class
Sub Main()
Dim c as New Circle(12, 45, 22)
Console.WriteLine(c)
Console.WriteLine("Area of circle: {0}", c.Area())
Console.WriteLine(c.GetCoordinates())
End Sub
End Module
We have an abstract base Drawing class.
The class defines two member fields, defines one method and declares one method.
One of the methods is abstract, the other one is fully implemented. The Drawing class
is abstract, because we cannot draw it. We can draw a circle, a dot or a square.
The Drawing class has some common functionality to the objects, that
we can draw.
MustInherit Class Drawing
In Visual Basic, we use the MustInherit keyword to
define an abstract class.
Public MustOverride Function Area() As Double
An abstract method is preceded with a MustOverride keyword.
Class Circle
Inherits Drawing
A Circle is a subclass of the Drawing class. It must implement the
abstract Area() method.
$ ./abstractclass.exe
Circle, at x: 12, y: 45, radius: 22
Area of circle: 1520.53084433746
x: 12, y: 45
Output of the program.
This was the first part of the description of OOP in Visual Basic.
